Cystic Fibrosis Essay -- Biology Genetic Defect

CF is caused by an inherited recessive genetic defect that is most prevalent in the white population. About 1 in 23 people in the United States carry at least one defective gene, making it the most common genetic defect of its severity. CF patients suffer from chronic lung problems and digestive disorders caused by a cellular defect in the transport of chloride ion. The problem in chloride handling results in loss of chloride in sweat which, in fact, is the basis for the clinical diagnosis of CF. As a consequence of the lesion in chloride transport patients' lungs become covered with sticky mucus which is difficult to remove and can promote infection by bacteria. Many people with CF require frequent hospitalizations and continuous usage of antibiotics, enzyme supplements, and other medications. In the past, the life expectancy of people with CF used to only be 8 years. However, with today's many medical advances, the average life expectancy is just under 30 years and is continuing to increase. Common cystic fibrosis symptoms involve: high amounts of salt (sodium and chloride) and potassium in sweat constant coughing and wheezing large amounts of mucus in the lungs recurring pneumonia failure to gain weight frequent, greasy, bulky, and strong-smelling bowel movements through the small intestine enlargement of fingertips and toes due to insufficient amount of oxygen in these areas Males with CF are sterile, and women who have CF can have problems with their menstrual cycles and becoming pregnant. CF slows down sexual development but brings no adverse effect upon it. Cystic Fibrosis: Fact or Fiction? "Woe to that child which when kissed on the forehead tastes salty. He is... ...olyte composition affects bacterial survival which provides an explanation for why CF airways are not maintained as a sterile environment. The data speculates that the bactericidal factor produced by airway epithelia may be a defensin-like molecule because it has characteristics of such factors. The results presented in the paper also link the molecular defect in CFTR Cl channels to the pathogenesis of CF lung disease. Most importantly the data suggests new approaches for therapy such as measurements of salt concentration and bactericidal activity may be clinically relevant assays for determining the effectiveness of potential therapeutic interventions. The data also raises the possibility that new interventions designed to correct the abnormally high salt concentration in CF fluid could be of benefit in treating or preventing airway infections in people with CF.

Should We Spend Time In The Sun?

Sunbathing and getting a suntan is getting more and more popular nowadays. Researches show a trend of getting suntan, just for fashion and good-looking, as they consider suntans to be healthy and attractive. Especially in the case of teenagers, no matter boys or girls, who mostly do this because of following their idols' appearance or even as a habit or an obsession (Source 1 and 2). Because of this, more and more people tend to spend their holidays abroad as to get a suntan by holidaying in hot countries and using sunbed. Between 1971 and 2001, the number of trips had increased form 4. millions to 38. 7 millions, making a huge difference of over 9 times (Source 3). Also people are spending a lot of money to create fake tan and to use sunbed. Unfortunately, researches show that people who sunbathe show a higher risk of getting skin cancer, and the earlier they start, the higher the risk (Source 2 and 4). From the researches, I can see that in recent years, more and more people are willing to spend money on using sunbeds and creating fake tans (Source 2), so the income and popularity of these businesses increases. Also, a trend of holidaying in hot and sunny countries is shown (Source 3 and 4), creating more business opportunities for tourism in countries such as Italy and Spain. It is believed that spending time in the sun is the main cause of skin cancer (Source 5 and 6). The energy from the sun contains Ultraviolet (UV) radiation, and there are two types of rays that exist in it, which are Ultraviolet A (UVA) and Ultraviolet B (UVB). They damage DNA, the genetic material that makes up genes. Genes control the growth and overall health of skin cells. If the genetic damage is severe, a normal skin cell may grow abnormally in the way of cancer cells. UV can also cause sunburn, and other damage that makes the skin look prematurely old and wrinkled. That is why many protection attempts are taken, such as avoiding excessive exposure to the sun (Source 6), and using sunscreen to increase our protection, the higher the Sun Protection Factor (SPF), the higher the protection you get (Source 7 and 8) The chances of getting a suntan, sunburn or skin cancer depend on many factors. One of the main factors is your skin colour (Source 9 and 10), the darker your skin, the lower the chance of getting any of the above. The other factor is the Sun Protection Factor of the sunscreen you apply (Source 8). The more you apply and the higher the factor gives more protection, and this results in less solar energy absorption. Another factor I found is the life expectancy. Due in large part to advances in medical technology, life expectancy for newborns has increased continuously over the past 70 years, from 57. 1 years in 1929 to 77. years in 2004, and an increase of more than two years in the past decade. (Source 11) Life expectancy affects the amount of sun exposure in a lifetime, which causes a higher risk of getting skin cancer because of a longer time of sun exposure. On the other hand, moderate and sensible sunlight exposure can help prevent skin cancer and some other cancers. In the case of skin cancer, sunlight causes vitamin D to synthesize in the body, giving some protection from the risk. This production of vitamin D can act as an immunity response from the body receiving Ultraviolet B rays from sunlight (Source 12, 13 and 14). Studies also show that people who get malignant melanoma but also have a high amount to daily sun exposure have a higher survival rate than people with less exposure. It is said that sunlight is more powerful than any drug, which is safe, effective and available free of charge (Source 12). I also found out that the amount of vitamin D our body need can be fulfilled by around thirty minutes in the sun each week (Source 15). Having some sunshine also affects our mood, as it stimulates the pineal gland to produce mood enhancing chemicals, called trytamines in the brain (Source 14). The sun can also help you achieve a good look if you like a healthy suntan (Source 14). In my opinion, I think we should not spend time in the sun, because our health is very important, and we should never take the risk of having skin cancer, especially not because of the desire for a suntan and to sacrifice their health. I think it is a waste of money and time to sunbathe. As for the production of vitamin D in our skin, which can be easily fulfilled by a thirty minutes sun exposure each week, we can do that by just having a walk.

Issues Of Net Neutrality - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 5 Words: 1373 Downloads: 3 Date added: 2019/04/10 Category Society Essay Level High school Tags: Net Neutrality Essay Did you like this example? Since the invention of the internet, the number of devices connected to the internet has been growing rapidly. As of 2016 it is estimated that over 3 billion (about half of the worlds population) is connected to the web. As the internet grows, slowly differing opinions and issues begin to crop up, including the idea of Net Neutrality which has been fiercely debated in the last decade. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Issues Of Net Neutrality" essay for you Create order Net Neutrality is the idea that all lawful traffic on the internet should be trated the same (Becker; Gharakheil). ISPs should not be allowed to block or throttle content because they were paid to do so or if they were not paid enough. ISPs also should not be allowed to censor content simply because they do not agree with it, such as political views. Net Neutrality is a term introduced by Columbia Law School professor Tim Wu and it is the principle that Internet Service Providers (ISPs) should treat all lawful content and traffic equally (Becker; Gharakheil). Under Net Neutrality, the Internet should be easily and equally accessible to all individuals, companies, and organizations. On February 26, 2015, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) ruled in favor of Net Neutrality, reclassifying broadband as a common carrier under Title II of the Communications Act of 1934. On December 14, 2017, the FCC voted in favor of repealing those rules and on June 11, 2018 Net Neutrality was officially repealed. Without net neutrality, ISPs could slow down certain internet traffic. One of the possible scenarios is that some Content Providers (CPs) could pay ISPs to prioritize their traffic over that of their competitors. There have been some examples of such behavior from ISPs; an example would be in 2014 when CP Netflix reached an agreement with ISP Comcast to improve the quality of service (QoS) to Netflix clients (Gharakheil). While Netflix experiences an increase in speed other traffic will be slowed, which could have a harsh impact on startups who are unable to afford the fee for a fast lane; a study in 2008 by the Aberdeen Group found that even a one-second delay could lead to 11% fewer page views, a 16% decrease in customer satisfaction, and 7% loss in conversions (Dooley). The throttling of data can cause other problems, for example in late July 2018 during the California wildfire firefighters in Santa Clara County, California were faced with another problem other than the wildfire: a loss of communication. Verizon had throttled the broadband connection to a vehicle used to receive calls for help and to coordinate firefighters and equipment, because they had reached their monthly data allotment. According to Santa Clara County Fire Chief, instead of restoring a stable data transfer speed Verizon representatives had told County Fire that they would have to switch to a new data plan at more than double the cost. Verizon later apologized and announced that they would lift the data cap on all California emergency response vehicles (Sullivan). Some of the advocators for Net Neutrality are CPs such as Google, Facebook and Netflix. Their reason to support Net Neutrality is that ISPs are taking advantage of CPs by forcing them to pay for fast-lanes. Other proponents of Net Neutrality include consumer rights advocates and human rights organizations; they argue that an open Internet will foster free speech and that without Net Neutrality ISPs would abuse their position of power and stifle the peoples right of free speech. Without net neutrality internet access could also become more expensive for consumers. In some countries without net neutrality ISPs have already adopted tiered pricing structures, where higher bandwidth comes with a higher expense. In addition to this, some ISPs have set varying data caps on total data usage for users with different contracts. Without Net Neutrality ISPs could also take unfair advantage of users that have access to very few providers by charging them more simply because they have no other option other than to accept it or pay more. Under net neutrality ISPs are also unable to provide Internet access for free or at a reduced cost to low-income households, the concept is known as zero rating which allows customers to use certain services with no impact to their allotted data caps (Gharakheil, Willcox). While it sounds like a great idea it can also be harmful to the economy because ISPs are giving select CPs an advantage over their competitors. Without Open Internet rules preventing ISPs from abusing their position as gatekeepers to the Internet they can do just about anything they want. During June 2018 ATT completed their acquisition of Time Warner at a price of $85 billion and just days after that they planned on completing more acquisitions: Were standing up a significant advertising platform; you should expect some smaller [mergers and acquisitions] in the coming weeks to demonstrate our commitment to that, ATT CEO Stephenson said (Brodkin). Around the same time Comcast announced a $65 billion bid for Twenty-First Century Fox, even though they later dropped the bid allowing Disney to win, they instead focused on their acquisition of British broadcaster Sky which they succeeded with a bid of $39 billion. What these situations show is that they are quickly gaining more and more power and without Net Neutrality rules in place they will be able to prioritize their own services, while slowing down rivals or charging them a fee for access, which would harm competition. Even now the Net Neutrality is being heavily debated and its not looking good for Net Neutrality supporters. Just recently some ISPs have attempted to remove a court ruling from 2016 supporting net neutrality but were denied, and during the midterm elections of 2018 U.S. Rep. Marsha Blackburn who supports paid fast lanes on the Internet won a U.S. Senate seat. On December 12, 2018 SMS and MMS text messaging was reclassified as a Title I information service rather than a Title II telecommunications service, which gives give wireless providers the power to block and censor text messages (Reardon). On December 13, 2018 Representative Mary Gay Scanlon, who was backed by Comcast agreed to sign the petition to bring back Net Neutrality after initially refusing to sign a discharge petition aimed at overturning the FCC decision to repeal Net Neutrality (Cameron). If nothing is done Net Neutrality could eventually evolve into a much larger issue where large corporations have too much power and influence over the economy and politics. Just recently December 2018 President Trump gave large corporations such as Verizon a large tax cut and despite the favor Verizon killed over 10,000 jobs, or around 7 percent of its workforce while stating that it was necessary (Brodkin). As of right now it would seem like that a significant group of politicians are no longer representing us, the people, instead they are representing the large corporations behind them, according to a poll from University of Maryland among 75% of Republicans, 89% of Democrat, and 86% of independents opposed the repeal of Net Neutrality and despite such an overwhelming majority in favor of Net Neutrality, anti-Net Neutrality decisions seem to be a common occurrence (Overwhelming Bipartisan). There are many claims that net neutrality could harm innovation and stifle growth across the entire economy. One such claim is from FCC Chairman Ajit Pai, he claims that Net Neutrality has harmed many ISPs, especially small ones and according to a letter to the FCC sent by 60 major technology suppliers including IBM, Intel, Qualcomm, and Cisco, Title II regulation of the Internet means that instead of billions of broadband investment driving other sectors of the economy forward, any reduction in this spending will stifle growth across the entire economy, but on June 27, 2017 the FCC received a letter from more than 40 ISPs stating that the open Internet rules have had no impact on their ability to grow (Falcon). ISPs should not be allowed to throttle internet traffic however they like and the Internet is also much more complex than telecommunication and should not be regulated under title II of the Communications Act of 1934, instead the Internet should be placed under its own unique title. Net Neutrality is still a relatively new topic and is not an issue that will be solved anytime soon and with such polarity the best solution would be to come to compromise that both sides can agree with, but it would be best if an Open Internet could be restored.

Edgar Allan Poes The Tell-Tale Heart and The Masque of...

Edgar Allan Poe’s â€Å"The Tell-Tale Heart† and â€Å"The Masque of the Red Death† When people think of Edgar Allan Poe, they probably think of dark writing and murders. His writings have been printing since the early 1800’s. (Giordano ) Many of his works are literally classics, such as â€Å"The Tell-Tale Heart,† and â€Å"The Masque of the Red Death.† Much like most of his stories, Poe’s life was a dark one. He was born in Boston, Massachusetts on January 19, 1809. Both his mother and his father were performers. His father abandoned the family to continue on with his acting career, and not even a year later, Poe’s mother died. (Hoffman ) When this happened, he went to live with John and Frances Allen. Although Poe was never adopted, he had a family.†¦show more content†¦While waiting, the narrator hears a dull pounding that he realizes is the heartbeat of the terrified old man. The narrator is worried that someone might hear the heartbeat, so he attacks the old man and kills him. â€Å"But the beating grew louder, lou der! I thought the heart must burst. And now a new anxiety seized me – the sound would be heard by a neighbor! The old man’s hour had come! With a loud yell, I threw open the lantern and leaped into to room. He shrieked once – once only. IN an instant I dragged him to the floor, and pulled the heavy bed over him. I then smiled gaily, to find the deed so far done.† (Poe) Afterwards, the narrator takes his body and dismembers the corpse. The narrator cuts off the head and the arms and the legs. Then, he hides the pieces below the floorboards in the bedroom. The narrator is careful not to leave behind any evidence. As he finishes, a clock strikes four and the narrator hears a knock at the door. A neighbor had heard the old man shriek and had called the cops. As if nothing had happened, the narrator leads the cops over the house without acting suspicious. He even shows the cops the old man’s bedrooms so they can sit down and chat. The police suspect not hing. At this time, the narrator is fine. Everything seemsShow MoreRelatedTerm Paper Edgar Allan Poes Infatuation with Death1498 Words   |  6 PagesEdgar Allan Poes Infatuation with Death Ralph Emerson once wrote, Talent alone cannot make the writer. There must be a man behind the book. Edgar Allan Poe acquired the ability to write Gothic horror through the tragedies that existed in his life. At three years old Poe lost his mother and father. Grief and sadness overwhelmed Poes childhood and eventually his literary style. By temperament and mournful personal experience, Poe was drawn into the contemporary cult of death (KennedyRead MoreHumorous Humor Of Edgar Allan Poe s The Dark Hearted 1675 Words   |  7 PagesPoe: Lighthearted Humor in a Darkened Heart Edgar Allan Poe, the dark hearted author! When speaking of Poe, readers would most likely associate him as a dark and dreary author. His uses of vivid, shadowy imagery and themes of death and despair lurk within the minds of his audiences. Poe, however, subtly injects his works with humor that may not easily be spotted by the human eye. Why exactly would Poe inject humor into his horror stories, since they aren’t comedies? To begin, the use of humor inRead MoreCommon Elements in all of Edgar Allan Poes Short Stories1157 Words   |  5 PagesEdgar Allan Poe is a name that is prominent in literature as a slightly obnoxious, gruesome writer. His short stories and poems are sure to send a shiver down any reader’s spine with his vivid imagery. But if one takes the time to read all sixty-nine of his short stories, he or she would find many common elements that become slightly monotonous. Even though he uses some similar ideas, it is what separates his work as distinctly â€Å"Poe†. After dissecting each of his stories, it is intriguing to findRead MoreEssay On The Tell Tale Heart815 Words   |  4 Pagesquote from one of Edgar Allan Poe’s more famous stories The Tell Tale Heart. Edgar Allan Poe’s writing is still famous to this day. Not only his writing but his life. He is known for having a difficult life and writing about it in a not so obvious way. Through all his poems and short stories there are little hints everywhere that relate to his life. Depression, insanity and Tuberculosis were all common topics from Poe’s writing that related to his life. Throughout many of Poe’s poems and short storiesRead More Madness and Fear in Assignation, Cask of Admontillado, Fall of the House of Usher, and Masque of th1589 Words   |  7 PagesAdmontillado, Fall of the House of Usher, and Masque of the Red Death Poe’s madmen are all obsessed with death. Existence within reality eventually becomes impossible. Poe usually places his madmen within a room or other enclosure, but they are rarely ever outside. When we do come across an exterior, nature does its best to repress, confine and enclose the man. The protagonist in Poe’s â€Å"The Assignation† sums up the combination of time and space within Poe’s stories and says, â€Å"I have †¦ framed for myselfRead More Juxtaposing the Most Similar Contradiction in Edgar Allan Poes Work2077 Words   |  9 PagesThroughout all of Edgar Allan Poes works are common ideas that oppose each such as madness versus sanity, reality versus the imagined reality and life versus death. Usually these sentiments are taken as contrasting ideas with little similarities to each other, like black and white. However, many of these motifs are situated in the grey category. Poe uses the communal thought pathway to highlight its antithesi s; the pathway of grey. With the new pathway, he emphasizes the similarities of the opposingRead MoreThe Life and Works of Edgar Allan Poe Essay1487 Words   |  6 Pages Throughout the life of Edgar Allan Poe, he suffered many unfortunate events and endured several difficult situations. Some speculate that it was these experiences that helped to formulate the famous writing style of Edgar Allan Poe. His dark tales such as The Masque of the Red Death and The Tell-Tale Heart are horrific, and his poems such as Alone and The Raven show evidence that his life experiences influenced their dreariness. Poes story plots and his own life are undeniably related andRead MoreEdgar Allen Poe and His Work Essay1480 Words   |  6 PagesEdgar Allen Poe and His Work Outline I. Introductory Paragraph I.1. Thesis statement I.2. High points II. First Paragraph II.1. Brief history of life III. Second Paragraph III.1. Edgars Writing Style III.2. Examples IV. Specific poems and short stories IV.1. Examples V. Conclusion Paragraph V.1. Restating thesis statement V.2. Restating high points of the paper Edgar Allen Poe was one of the great writers of this world. He created several poems and short stories of aRead MoreIn â€Å"The Masque Of The Red Death,† Edgar Allen Poe Describes1125 Words   |  5 Pagesâ€Å"The Masque of the Red Death,† Edgar Allen Poe describes how people fear death even though it is inevitable. Fear is a strong emotion where he taps into those feelings through his powerful creation of suspense. This short story took place in Medieval times. The author describes how Prince Prospero encounters death and thinks he can win the fight. His thoughts were concerned with death and show how metaphorically it’s inescapable, but people continues to behave as if they are immortal. Poe’s shortRead MoreThe Autobiographical Elements in the Works of Edgar Allan Poe1663 Words   |  7 PagesThe Autobiographical Elements in the Works of Edgar Allan Poe There is no exquisite beauty without some strangeness in the proportions (Biography on Poe 8). Edgar Alan Poe endured a very difficult life and this is evident in his literary style. He was once titled the master of the macabre. One of the aspects in his life with which he struggled was social isolation. He used this as a topic in a number of poems and short stories. Poes life was also filled with periods of fear and irrationality

The American Dream - 1823 Words

Acclaimed writer and professor of English literature, Azar Nafisi said â€Å"The negative side of the American Dream comes when people pursue success at any cost, which in turn destroys the vision and the dream†. The American Dream is the â€Å"ideology that states that if people work really hard and are determined to achieve their financial goals, they will attain financial success† (Tyson). The Marxist belief that the American Dream is a restrained belief system is widely evident in Fitzgerald’s The Great Gatsby. The means by which some people pursue this dream ultimately results in the destruction of the dream itself. This is explored through the narcissist attitudes of the individuals who are living the American Dream, the alternatives the proletariat population uses to obtain the dream and the widespread evidence of the unachievability of the dream itself Tom and Daisy, despite already living the American Dream, behave in a self-absorbed manner to continue t o maintain their social standing. They show reckless disregard for the lives of others as well as their own loved ones, all driven by the compelling desire to be equated to a higher social class. As Nick and the Buchanans begin to have dinner they are interrupted by an unexpected call. While everyone is aware of the source of the call, Jordan breaks the news to a confused Nick that â€Å"Tom’s got some woman in New York† (Fitzgerald 20). The entire idea that Tom’s â€Å"got some woman† (Fitzgerald 20) shows readers the presence ofShow MoreRelatedImmigrants And The American Dream1362 Words   |  6 PagesImmigrants and the American Dream In the article â€Å"The American Dream†, by James Truslow Adams in The Sundance Reader book, he stated that the American dream is that dream of a land in which life should be better and richer and fuller for everyone, with opportunity for each according to ability or achievement. It is a difficult dream for the European upper classes to interpret adequately, and too many of us ourselves have grown weary and mistrustful of it. It is not a dream of motor cars and highRead MoreThe American Dream By Kimberly Amadeo1637 Words   |  7 PagesNowadays, a large number of people migrate to the United States to work and achieve the American Dream. According to the Article â€Å"What is the American Dream?† by Kimberly Amadeo, â€Å"The American Dream was first publicly defined in 1931 by James Truslow Adams in Epic of America. Adam’s often-repeated quote is, ‘The American Dream is that dream of land in which life should be better and richer and fuller for everyon e, with opportunity for each according to ability or achievement.’† There are many peopleRead MoreAnalysis Of The Movie The American Dream 754 Words   |  4 Pages Nyreel Powell Ms. Jones American Literature 1 June 2015 The American dream in A Raisin in the Sun Have you ever had a dream and it didn’t come how you wanted it to be? Have you ever had accomplishments that you wanted to achieve but people were getting in the way of them? The four main characters in this book all have good dreams but there are people in the way of getting to those dreams or their dream is too high to accomplish. 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Self destruction, if you will†¦ Mr. Self Destruct Read MoreSuccess As One Of The American Dream1137 Words   |  5 PagesApril 2015 Success as One of The American Dream When we hear the word â€Å"success†, we often think of wealth and money. To some people, the embodiment of being success is earning a lot of money. In fact, the concept of success is primarily based on how much money a person earns. However, each person views the definition of success differently. One way to define success is something that has more to do with flash than it does with substance. John Wooden, an American basketball player and coach viewRead MoreJim Cullen And The American Dream2081 Words   |  9 Pages The American Dream, as defined by Cullen, is starting your goal off with a little and ending with more; it s like a business, you invest in it in order to gain more money. Usually, people will define the American Dream as being able to achieve your goal because everyone is offered opportunities. Cullen does acknowledge that people are born with different opportunities, so he talks about the good life. The good life describes different factors that determine your opportunities. Throughout the otherRead MoreFactors Influencing The American Dream1834 Words   |  8 Pagesindividual to succumb or to not succumb to the seductions of crime. These three factors are brilliantly portrayed in the television show, Breaking Bad and the novel, The Stick Up Kids. The American Dream is what many American citizens strive for. However, not all of those citizens are able to achieve the American Dream through a legal pathway. The reason an indivudal may not being able to do so is because of his or her background factors. It is important to note that background factors are a fractionRead MoreShark Tank And The American Dream1755 Words   |  8 PagesShark Tank and The American Dream The TV show Shark tank embodies everything the American dream represents. The show obtains successful Entrepreneurs ready to invest their own money into other Americans wanting to be just like them, reaching the American dream and become a successful entrepreneur. The show presents entrepreneurs working towards the goal of creating a business to not only gain wealth but also change the way we live today. The show is to keep the American dream alive and well while

Keynesian and Classical economics Free Essays

INTRODUCTION: The general theory by Maynard Keynes states that the level of employment is determined by the marginal efficiency of capital, marginal propensity to consume and the real interest rates, he also the level of output and employment is determined by aggregate demand and that the aggregate demand can be increased through an increase in government expenditure. Keynes therefore advocated for government intervention in steering the economy while the classical economist argued that the government should not interfere with the running of the economy, on unemployment according to Keynes theory this problem could be resolved by the use of government policies, the two theorists differ in the causes and the solutions of unemployment, to the classical economists unemployment is caused by excess supply which is caused by high wage rates, high wage rates means low demand and therefore this causes unemployment, therefore the Classical economist believe that the economy should be left to adjust itself until an equilibrium is reached at full employment. Says law was developed by Jean Say who was a French businessman, according to this theory there cannot be demand without supply, according to this law a recession which is characterized by high unemployment is not caused by low demand or lack of money, however an increase in money supply will result to inflation. We will write a custom essay sample on Keynesian and Classical economics or any similar topic only for you Order Now The Say’s law therefore clearly identifies the difference between the Keynes theory and classical economists in their explanation of the economy. Classical Economists and Say’s law: Classical economist supports Say’s law that supply causes demand and that there is never over supply, the Law states that people will supply things to the economy so that they can get money to buy other goods in the economy that are of the same value they have supplied. This is in line with the classical economists who argue that money does exist in an economy and that money will flow in the economy and this flow of money flows from the businesses to the people through paying jobs. The classical economist states that the price level is changed by the level of money supply, also that the amount of supply will always be at full employment such that producers will not change the level of supply but will adjust the price levels to achieve the required demand level, therefore because supply creates its own demand then in the long run the economy will be at equilibrium and this means very low or no unemployment. According to the Says law the classical economist therefore defined the model of the economy as follows P X Q = M X V, where P is the price level, Q is the quantity of goods sold, M is the money supply and V is the velocity of money flow. As the level of money supply increases assuming that the level of money supply is constant then the price or the quantity of goods sold will increase. If on the other hand the money supply increases and assuming that the velocity level remains constant then the price level or the quantity demanded will rise, therefore our outcome for the model means that an increase in money supply is inflationally and that an increase in the velocity of money flow will lead to economic development. Keynes Theory and Say’s law: Keynesians dismisses Says law as a false statement, he argues that supply and demand should be separately analyzed, on supply Keynesians says that supply generates income, people will then consume this income, the largest portion of income goes to consumption while the rest is saved, they analyzed the consumption levels of the income in terms of marginal propensity to consume which will rise as the level of income rises. The Keynesian economist therefore considered the model of the economy as Y = C + I + (X-M) where Y is income, C is consumption, I is the investment X is exports and M is imports. The model is further analyzed as C = (a + b Y) where a is the autonomous income level, b is the marginal propensity to consume and Y is the income level. Conclusion: We can conclude that the Says law is the major difference between the Keynes theory and the classical economists, the classical economist support the Says law and also advocate for a free market economy while Keynes argues that the government can solve the problem of unemployment in an economy through an increase in spending to increase the aggregate demand that results to lower unemployment levels. References: Alan Coddington (2003) Keynesian Economics: The First Principles, Rout ledge publishers, US  Alfred William (1991) The Classical Economists and Economic Policy, University of Michigan press, Michigan  George Douglas (1967) Macro-economic Theory: A Mathematical Treatment, Macmillan publishers, US  Steven Kate’s (2003) Two Hundred Years of Say’s Law: Essays on Economic Theory’s Most Controversial Principle, Edward Elgar Publishing, US  John Fender (1981) Understanding Keynes: An Analysis of the General Theory, Wiley publishers, US How to cite Keynesian and Classical economics, Essay examples

Energy Sector of Pakistan free essay sample

Pakistan realising the importance, is making concerted efforts to speedup the development of energy resources so as it may effectively contribute to the nations economic growth and well-being. The four major components of government’s strategy for energy sector development include:- a. Increasing energy supplies to meet the growing demand. . Expanding and upgrading transmission and distribution infrastructure. c. Increasing end use energy efficiency. d. Maximum indigenization. 2. Energy Needs of Pakistan a. Present Energy Needs Vis-a-vis its Supply in Pakistan. Pakistans economy is undergoing significant changes since 1998-99; the improvements made in the macroeconomic indicators are, in particular, noteworthy. The real GDP increased from 5. 1 per cent in 2002-03 to 6. 4 per cent in 2003-04 and was 8. 5 per cent for the fiscal year 2004-05. The projected growth rate for the next five years is estimated to be 7-8 per cent . One can assume that without significant expansion in the economic activity in the country, this growth rate will be difficult to sustain for the next five years. We will write a custom essay sample on Energy Sector of Pakistan or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page With expansion in economy the demand in energy will also increase. Government of Pakistans Medium Term Development Framework (MTDF) projects the growth in the demand of electricity, petroleum products, natural gas, and coal at an average annual rate of 8. 4%, 4. 3%, 7. 6%, 18. 9% respectively . Although, both the demand and supply of energy has been increasing for the last decade and a half, the per capita consumption of energy in Pakistan remains low. As compared to their counterparts in Malaysia and China – where per capita consumption of energy stands at 92 MBTU and 34MBTU, respectively – the per capita consumption in Pakistan is 14 MBTU. Figures 1 and 2 show an upward trend in the supply and per capita availability of energy in tonnes equivalent of energy (TOE) in Pakistan since 1990. Figure 1:Energy supply (million TOE) Source Economic Server 2004-05 Figure 2:Per Capita Availability in TOE 3. Energy Resources. At present, the energy sector in Pakistan consists of the following:- a. Power. b. Gas. c. Oil. d. Coal. 4. Pakistans total primary energy supply in tonnes equivalent of oil (TOE) in the fiscal year 2003-04 stood at 50. 8 million TOE. The primary energy supply has seen a constant increase since 2001. It increased by 4. 4 per cent from 2001-02 to 2002-03 and by another 8 per cent from 2002-03 to 2003-04. Figure 3 shows the share of different energy resources in the primary energy mix supplies. The patterns of energy consumption have also registered an upward trend. 5. Structure of Power Sector in Pakistan. Only about half of 140. 5 million people in Pakistan have access to electricity. The growing pace of urbanization and industrialization also increases the demand for electricity. To meet power requirements of Pakistan, reform of the power sector through restructuring and deregulation is high on the agenda of the Government of Pakistan, which is committed to pursuing a far-reaching reform program for the power sector and to help meet the countrys future power needs. Implementation of the envisaged program will bring about a gradual transition of the power system from integrated, state-owned utilities to a decentralized system with separate generation, transmission and distribution entities, having substantial private ownership and management, reflecting and encouraging a commercial and competitive operating environment. 6. Pakistan has two vertically integrated public sector power utilities i. e Pakistan Water and Power Development Authority (WAPDA) and Karachi Electric Supply Corporation (KESC). WAPDA supplies power to all of Pakistan, except the metropolitan city of Karachi, which is supplied by KESC. The systems of WAPDA and KESC are interconnected through 220 kV double circuit transmission line. Out of a total generation capacity of about 17,664 MW in the country, 9,949 MW is owned by WAPDA, 1,756 MW by KESC, 437 MW by the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission and 5,522 MW by independent power producers (IPPs). a. Pakistan Water and Power Development Authority (WAPDA). WAPDA was established in 1958 and entrusted with a massive agenda, which included generation, transmission and distribution of power along with irrigation, water supply, drainage, flood control, etc. It owns about 54 percent of the countrys total power generation capacity, serves 88 percent of all electricity customers in Pakistan and has been, until of late, the principal power generation, transmission and supply organization in the country. It has a customer base of over 10 million. The privatization of WAPDA is underway. WAPDAs distribution network has been divided into eight electric supply companies, which are successors of former Area Electricity Boards (AEBs). The AEBs were departments within WAPDA to administer the supply and distribution, construction, expansion, maintenance and operation of the distribution system. The newly incorporated electric supply companies have been structured in line with modern management practices. WAPDAs thermal power generation facilities have been restructured and incorporated to form three-generation companies (GENCOs). In addition, a National Transmission and Dispatch Company (NTDC) have been incorporated to perform transmission and dispatch functions. b. Karachi Electric Supply Corporation (KESC). KESC was incorporated in 1913 and is responsible for the generation, transmission and distribution of electricity in Karachi and its adjoining areas. It has a customer base of 1. 5 million predominantly urban consumers. Privatization of KESC is underway, and KESC is planned to be divested as a vertically integrated utility through sale of its equity interest to a strategic buyer who will also be given control over its management. 7. Energy Consumption Patterns. According to the latest economic survey, in the past 14 years – from 1990-99 to 2003-04 – the consumption of petroleum products, natural gas, electricity and coal increased by an annual average rate of 2. 5%, 4. 9%, 5. 1% and 5. 2%, respectively. However, one major change in consumption patter has been registered in the consumption of oil. The use of oil has reduced since 2001, particularly in the cement industry and power generation, because the cement industry has shifted to natural gas and the power generation sector is also increasingly using gas. Similarly, the consumption of various petroleum products in household and agriculture registered marked decline of 16. 2 and 16. 8 per cent, respectively. This is primarily because of the availability of cheaper fuels like LPG and natural gas. However, the consumption of petroleum products has increased in transportation, industrial and other government sectors. In the last 14 years, the transport sector saw the largest use of petroleum products with a share of 48. 7 per cent. The share of power sector, industry, households, other government sectors and agriculture stood at 31%, 12. 1%, 3. 8%, 2. 5% and 1. 5%, respectively. The sector wise consumption is given in Table 1. Table 1: Sector wise natural gas consumption from 1990-2004 SectorNatural Gas Consumption Power sector35. 4% Fertilizer23. 4% Industrial18. 9% Household17. % Commercial2. 8% Cement1. 5% 8. The consumption of natural gas in the cement sector in the first nine months of fiscal year 2004-05 registered a 100 per cent increase. Similarly, for the same time period the consumption for industrial, power, commercial and household sectors jumped up by 15. 5%, 12. 3%, 10. 5%, 3. 8%, respectively. In electricity consumption, the household sector has always been the largest consumer with a share of 41. 4 per cent. The share for industrial, agricultural, other government sectors and commercial consumers for the same time period (1990-04) has been 31. %, 14. 1%, 7% and 6%, respectively. Figure 4 shows the sector wise shares of electricity consumption for the period 2004-05. 9. Future Energy Forecasts. According to the 2004-05 Economic Survey of Pakistan, the double digit growth in the large scale manufacturing sector has resulted in an increase in demand of electric power in some industrial sectors. The survey also projects that demand in electricity will grow at an average yearly ra te of 7. 9 per cent from 2005 to 2010. The table below summarises the sector wise power demand till the year 2010. Table 2: Sector Wise Power Demand (2005-10) YearDomesticCommercialAgricultureIndustrialOtherTotal 2005-06 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09 2009-107,199 7,585 8,127 8,783 9,5311,216 1,251 1,312 1,354 1,4081,763 1,820 1,893 1,979 2,0795,891 6,481 7,252 8,181 9,2671,035 1,086 1,159 1,243 1,341 15,500 16,600 17,900 19,600 21,500 10. The recently approved 25 year ‘Energy Security Action Plan (ESAP)’ aims to increase Pakistans reliance on indigenous fuels. Before that the Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP) outlined similar measures. The paper aims to significantly improve Pakistans energy mix. It envisages a hydel-thermal ratio of 39:61 from an existing ratio of around 28:72. The ESAP also envisages significantly reducing reliance on oil while increasing reliance on coal. Table 3 shows the energy mix plan for the next 25 years as proposed in ESAP. Table 3: Energy Mix Plan (MTOE) Energy Mix Plan Projections CurrentShort TermMedium TermLong Term 200420102015202020252030 Total (MTOE)50. 579. 39120. 18177. 35255. 37361. 31 Oil15. 230. 0%20. 6926. 0%32. 5127. 0%45. 4725. 7%57. 922. 7%66. 8418. % Natural Gas4550. 0%38. 9949. 0%52. 9844. 0%77. 8544. 0%11545. 0%162. 645. 0% Coal3. 36. 5%7. 169. 0%14. 4512. 0%24. 7714. 0%38. 315. 0%68. 6519. 0% Hydro6. 4312. 7%11. 0313. 9%16. 413. 6%21. 4412. 1%30. 512. 0%38. 9310. 8% Renewable00. 0%0. 841. 1%1. 61. 3%37%5. 582. 2%9. 22. 5% Nuclear0. 420. 8%0. 690. 9%2. 231. 9%4. 812. 7%8. 243. 2%15. 114. 2% 11. In order to achieve these targets, the Government is actively pursuing the e xtraction and commercialisation of vast Thar coal reserves. The Thar coal reserves are estimated to be at 185 billion short tonnes. It is estimated that with these reserves Pakistan can generate 100000 MW of electricity for the next 30 years . In order to achieve the new targets, the Government of Sindh has signed MOU for a 600 MW Thar coal power project with a Chinese company. Another MOU has been signed with an Australian firm for a 1200 MW project at Thar that will utilise the new technology of ‘Underground Coal Gasification’ . 12. Government’s Power Generation Policy 2002. To meet the increasing energy needs, Government of Pakistan has adopted the ‘Power Policy 2002’ to achieve the following objectives:- a. To provide sufficient capacity for power generation at the least cost, and to avoid capacity shortfalls. b. To encourage and ensure exploitation of indigenous resources, which include renewable energy resources, human resources, participation of local engineering and manufacturing capabilities. c. To ensure that all stakeholders are looked after in the process, i. e. a win-win situation for all. d. To be attuned to safeguarding the environment. For the first time in Pakistan, Government of Pakistan has significantly reflected the renewable power generation options in the 2002 power policy. 3. Important Features of Policy. The main features of the current power policy are discussed below:- a. The basis for selection of the successful bidder in each case will be the minimum levelized tariff, either through International Competitive Bidding (ICB) for solicited proposals or through negotiations/ICB for proposals on raw sites, i. e. locations whereof no feasibility study has been initiate d. Variable tariffs over the life of the project will be permitted under the terms specified in the Request for Proposals (RFP). The process of selection will involve pre-qualification, issuance of the RFP and bidding and evaluation in accordance with the bid criteria clearly laid down in the RFP. b. It is recognized that without a proper feasibility study for a particular site-specific hydel or indigenous fuel-based/renewable resource-based project, it will not be possible to invite competitive bids and receive firm offers. Thus detailed feasibility studies for such projects will be carried out by the public/private sector before bids are invited and the Letter of Support (LOS) issued. The feasibility study may be conducted by the private sector only on raw sites, provided the proposal for the project on raw site has been reviewed/accepted and a Letter of Interest (LOI) issued after submission of the required bank guarantee. c. Hydel projects in the private sector will be implemented on Build-Own-Operate-Transfer (BOOT) basis. Thermal projects in the private sector, however, will be established either on BOOT or Build-Own-Operate (BOO) basis. Decision in the matter would be made on a case-to-case basis. The projects based on BOOT shall be transferred at the end of concession period to Government of Pakistan. . Competitive tariffs will comprise an Energy Purchase Price (EPP) and a Capacity Purchase Price (CPP) with adequate provision for escalation. The CPP in case of hydel projects will be approximately 60% to 66% of the levelized tariff, because of the relatively low EPP. e. The Government of Pakistan will guarantee that the terms and conditions of executed agreements, i. e. , the Implementation Agreement (IA), Power Purchase Agreement (PPA), Fuel Supply Agreement (FSA)/Gas Supply Agreement (GSA), and Water Use License (WUL), including payment terms, are maintained during the term of the agreements. Power companies will be allowed to import plant and equipment not manufactured locally (for hydel and thermal projects including projects based upon renewable resources) at concessionary rates. Companies will also be completely exempted from the payment of income tax, including turnover tax, and withholding tax on imports. However, there will be no exemption from payment of these taxes on oil-fired power projects. g. To promote indigenization, the local engineering industry will be encouraged to form joint ventures with foreign companies in order to develop power projects with a cumulative capacity of at least 2000 MW by the year 2015.